A. The Greek and Hellenistic World.

1. Derivation and Meaning. Research has yielded no plain results. The basic sense seems to be “low.”

2. tapeinós.

This word has such senses as “lowly,” “mean,” “insignificant,” “weak,” and “poor.” It may be used of a city, country, state, or statesman, of a star, a river, goods, influence, etc. The condition may be intrinsic or due to the acts of others.

When used of the spiritual or moral state, the term means “lowly” or “servile,” usually with the disparaging sense of obsequiousness or submissiveness. Although Socrates teaches that anyone can attain to a high and free disposition, Aristotle argues that whatever prevents the development of virtue makes the spirit tapeinós. Epictetus espouses worldly citizenship in spite of differences of status but tapeinós is still a negative term for him, denoting pettiness and baseness of disposition.

tapeinós can express a difficult situation or lowly status, e.g., that of the petitioner. The person who is tapeinós easily becomes a flatterer. When abasement is that of wickedness or immoderation, it can have positive meaning but it is not in itself a positive good. The Greeks resist prostration before rulers and the humiliation of children in view of their dislike of abasement.

Yet tapeinós can sometimes mean “modest” or “obedient” and in this sense be good, e.g., in subjects, soldiers, or children.

Oceanus demands that Prometheus be tapeinós relative to the gods. The idea is not that he should be humble but that he should adjust himself to them.

3. tapeinóō.

This verb means “to make small,” “to humiliate,” “to weaken.”

It also takes on the senses “to oppress,” “to exploit,” “to break the spirit.” The idea of self-belittling is abhorrent. Those who disparage themselves simply show how weak and poor they are. A positive sense occurs relative to humbling the self before the gods—a possible explanation of the custom of covering the head in sacrifice and prayer.

4. tapeínōsis. This word means “reduction,” e.g., of a swelling, of people by fate (cf. also “depression” of mind).

5. tapeinóphrōn, tapeinophroήnē.

The first of these two terms means “poor-spirited.”

Epictetus uses the second term Dissertationes 3.24.56) in the sense of a “petty disposition” or “pusillanimity.”

6. Meaning of the Derivatives. The derivatives confirm the meaning and the negative usage of tapeinós, although they also acquire the sense of obedient integration into a given order and even of subjection to deity.

B. The LXX.

Hebrew Originals. In the LXX tapeinós and derivatives are more common than in secular Greek. tapeinós occurs 67 times and tapeinóō 165 times for various Hebrew stems. The prominence of the verb shows that the main reference is to an action rather than a state, and the chief Hebrew originals confirm this. Thus the group ānâ has the basic sense of “stooping,” “bowing down,” and then “humbling oneself” (or “being humbled” by sickness, poverty, want, etc.). From this we get such senses as humility, modesty, subservience, compliance, and affliction.

tapeinóō

This word means “to bow down,” “to make low,” “to humble.”

Another sense is “to bend,” “to oppress,” “to harass,” “to weaken,” “to destroy,” “to force” (also sexually).

tapeinóō emautón or the middle passive means “to abase oneself,” “to cast oneself down.” In fasting people humble themselves before God, but the OT never glorifies such self-abasement, stressing instead the humble attitude of the heart (cf. Prov. 25:7; Joel 2:12–13; Is. 58:5ff.).

God lays low the mighty and exalts the lowly (1 Sam. 2:7; Ezek. 21:31). This applies both to Israel and to her foes, and also to individuals. Is. 2:11 states the principle. The prophets direct it against

Jerusalem and Zion (Is. 3:8). Ps. 75:8 says plainly that the Lord puts down one and lifts up another. Yet while sickness humbles and death brings down to the dust, God does not reject those who humble themselves before him (Pss. 44:25; 51:17). God may humble individuals so as to put them in a right relationship to himself (Ps. 116:6). Hence abasement can mean salvation (Ps. 119:71). The great need is to see God’s purpose and find a relation of obedience to the commandment. God abases, but when the humbled repent, the affliction ceases (1 Kgs. 8:35–36).

3. tapeinós.

This first means “low,” “flat.”

It then means “bowed down,” “small,” “base,” “insignificant” in a negative sense. God chooses the insignificant for his plans (Judg. 6:15; 1 Sam. 18:23). The tapeinoí are those who keep God’s statutes (Ps. 119:67). God leaves in Israel a humble and lowly people that seeks his name (Zeph. 3:12).

Another meaning is “oppressed,” “held down,” e.g., by foreign powers or by the wealthy. In this sense poverty and lowliness are related.

God, however, exalts those who are outwardly or inwardly oppressed (Pss. 18:27; 34:18). It is God’s eternal nature to look on the lowly (Ps. 138:6). He does not despise their prayer (Ps. 102:17). The Messiah will establish right for the meek and pronounce sentence for the oppressed (Is. 11:4). The Lord has made Zion a refuge for the oppressed (Is. 14:32; cf. 25:4). Is. 49:13 speaks similarly. God’s covenant of peace is forever with the lowly (54:10–11). He has regard to the humble and contrite in spirit (66:2).

4. tapeínōsis. This word means “humble situation,” “lowliness,” “sorrow.” The lowly or difficult situation might be that of Israel (Dt. 26:7) or of individuals (Gen. 16:11). Ps. 10:14 refers to the tapeínōsis brought on by enemies. In Ps. 90:3 it is the destiny of death whose cause is sin (Ps. 25:18). In it God’s word leads to life (Ps. 119:153). One should handle with patience those who thus undergo oppression (Prov. 16:19). The Servant undergoes it in Is. 53:8. This is a reason for his exaltation (cf. vv. 7, 10ff.).

5. The Greek and Biblical Understanding. The Greek view of humanity exalts freedom and thus despises subjection. Hence it qualifies tapeinós negatively. The Bible sets humanity under God and thus extols obedient service. Hence it gives the tapeinós group a positive sense.

C. Judaism.

1. Qumran and Apocalyptic.

The Qumran sectaries call themselves the poor, thus stressing their dependence on God and also their election. Their rule demands humility toward one another as well as God. They are also to be humble before the mighty but with concealed hostility.

Some passages from the Testaments of the Twelve speak about the abasement that goes with conversion. tapeínōsis is the conversion of the heart accompanied by fasting. As subjection to God it must also be shown to priests and to others.

Apocalyptic displays a similar spirit. Those who humble themselves receive greater honor. The hearts of the rich convict them as sinners who tread down the lowly. There will finally be an eschatological humbling of the earth by plagues.

2. Rabbinic Writings. The rabbis attach great value to humility. If keeping the law leads to it, it is also needed to attain and retain knowledge of the law. If any become proud of this, God humbles them, but if they repent, he raises them up again. Humility means modesty in relation to others. Long-suffering goes with subjection of heart. The rabbis accuses Christians of pride, but Christians reverse the charge, claiming that rabbinic practice does not accord with theory.

3. Hellenistic Judaism.

The Epistle of Aristeas advises travelers to be humble on the twofold ground that God accepts the humble and others are usually gracious to them.

Philo uses the group in the Greek sense but also adopts biblical insights. Abasement is an essential transition into God’s presence. Persuasion of human pettiness brings appreciation of the divine majesty.

Josephus uses the group negatively in the Greek senses of “baseness,” “pettiness,” “poor-spiritedness,” and also in the sense of “abasement” or “humiliation.”

D. The NT.

1. Occurrence of the Group in the NT. In the NT tapeinós occurs eight times, taρeinóō 14, taρeínōsis four, taρeinορhrοήnē seven, and taρeinóρhrōn once. In all there are 34 instances, 13 of which are in Pauline works, but none in the Johannine material, Mark, Hebrews, Jude, 2 Peter, or the Pastorals.

2. taρeinóō.

Lk. 3:5 extends the quotation from Is. 40:3ff.; we see from 1:48, 52 that the saying is taken figuratively.

Jesus states that those who exalt themselves will be abased and those who abase themselves will be exalted (Mt. 23:12; Lk. 14:11; 18:14). The form of the saying is Jewish, the OT supplies the content, and the rabbis offer parallels. The future passive conceals the name of God. The placing of the saying (e.g., in Lk. 14:11) shows that humility before God is at issue. In Lk. 18:14 the humility of the publican sets him in a right relation to God. Mt. 18:4 adds the special nuance that abasement before God means becoming a child before him. Jesus does not demand visible self-abasement (cf. Mt. 6:16ff.; Mk. 2:18–19) but a total trust in God that expects everything from him and nothing from self.

Paul in 2 Cor. 10:1 faces the accusation that he has a servile disposition because he refuses support from the church. In answer he argues that his self-abasement is for the church’s exaltation (11:7). On his coming he fears fresh humiliation unless there be conversion (12:19ff.), not merely through contempt but through the threat to his reputation. In Phil. 4:12–13, however, he knows how to handle abasement as well as abundance through Christ’s strengthening. In this regard he follows the Lord who humbled himself and was thus highly exalted (2:7, 9). The reference here is first to a free self-emptying of the divine likeness and then to free obedience even to the death of the cross. At once historical and eschatological, this act is the governing factor in the Christian life.

Jms. 4:10, quoting Prov. 3:34 LXX, calls for submission to God and adds the promise of exaltation by him. In context the demanded submission is that of penitence. 1 Pet. 5:5–6, influenced by the same OT verse, calls for the subjection which means putting one’s whole trust in the grace of the God who cares for those who humble themselves before him.

3. tapeinós.

Close to Lk. 3:5 is 1:52, which refers to God’s eschatological work.

1 Pet. 5:5 and Jms. 4:6 quote Prov. 3:34 LXX. They both use ho theós to show that the reference is not to Christ. Jms. 1:9 says that the lowly may boast in their exaltation, and the rich in their humiliation, in a reversal of worldly values (cf. Mt. 5:3; 11:5; Lk. 4:18; Jms. 2:5).

Applied to Paul in 2 Cor. 10:1, tapeinós has the derogatory Greek sense, but Paul makes the OT point that God comforts the humble (7:6). In Rom. 12:16 Paul exhorts to association with the lowly (or possibly to the acceptance of lowly services).

In Mt. 11:20 Jesus says that he himself is meek and lowly, not of necessity, but in free dedication to God (in heart), and in service to others (cf. Lk. 22:27; Mt. 20:28) as he gives himself to sinners and the despised.

4. taρeínōsis.

Philip in Acts 8:32ff. applies Is. 53:7–8 to Christ and his people as they move through humiliation to exaltation (cf. Lk. 9:22ff.; 12:49–50).

In Lk. 1:48 the reference is either to “childlessness” if Elizabeth is meant or “lowliness” if Mary is meant. On the latter view the choice of the humble Mary to give birth to God’s Son exemplifies God’s eschatological action in history.

Paul calls the present body the body of humiliation in Phil. 3:21. The point at issue is its subjection to death, which will be remedied when the body is fashioned afresh after Christ’s risen body of glory.

In Jms. 1:10 the humiliation of the rich is the subjection to death that brings their affluence to nothing. The eschatological inversion of all things is already at work in the church.

5. taρeinορhrοήnē.

a. In Phil. 2:4 Paul asks for the humility which takes the form of unselfishness, i.e., concern for the welfare of others. Christ’s own self-giving provides the model as God in Christ takes us seriously and acts on our behalf. Only by a similar refraining from self-assertion can members of the church maintain its unity. Paul offers a personal example in Acts 20:19.

In Col. 2:18, 23 the term is a concept in the Colossian heresy and it either means “fasting” or “mortification,” or else it implies the “inferiority” that leads to the cult of angels. Either way it involves cultic practice, not disposition. In contrast the reference in Col. 3:12 is to the new conduct of Christians toward others. The same applies in Eph. 4:2 with an emphasis on unity.

1 Pet. 5:5 enjoins humility as a readiness for mutual service in the place ordained by God. This stands at the heart of the new Christian life in which the members all live for one another and for God.

6. taρeinóρhrōn. 1 Pet. 3:8 concludes the detailed directions with the demand that all be of a humble mind. For true Christian fellowship it is essential that there be a humble readiness for service to others (cf. 5:5).

E. The Apostolic Fathers.

tapeinós. This term denotes the poor or oppressed in 1 Clem. 59.4. Esther’s humility saves the people in 55.6. Barn. 3.3 quotes Is. 58:6–7.

taρeinóō. God’s abasing and exalting is the theme in 1 Clem. 59.3ff. Barn. 4.4 quotes Dan. 7:24 and 4.5 quotes Dan. 7:7–8.

taρeínōsis. 1 Clem. 53.2 refers this term to Moses on the mount.

tapeinophronéō. This term denotes self-humbling, renunciation of sin, subjection to Scripture, and in Hermas Similitudes 7.6 humble and persevering submission to fasting and affliction.

taρeinορhrοήnē. This term expresses the disposition in humbling. A lowly mind should mark officebearers (1 Clem. 44.3) and is a presupposition of effectual prayer (Hermas Visions 3.10.6).

taρeinορhrónēsis. In Hermas this new word comes into use for subjection to God’s commandments (cf. Similitudes 8.7.6).

taρeinóρhrōn. 1 Clement uses this word as a noun for the humility of the fathers. Other references are Barn. 19.3; Ignatius Ephesians 10.2; Hermas Mandates 11.8.

The Shift in Sense. With the relaxing of eschatological tension humility becomes a disposition that produces penitence rather than an eschatological expectation and a manner of life under Christ’s control. Hermas even equates humility with penitence and fasting. Jewish Christian influence and fear of moral

decay in society and the church help to explain this decisive change. [W. GRUNDMANN, VIII, 1–26]

HUMILITY ταπεινοφροσύνη  (tapeinofrosunē) 1. lowness of stature, Hdt. 2. of condition, low estate, abasement 3. lowness of spirits, dejection, Xen. 4. in moral sense, baseness, vileness, Plat.
tapeinofrosu/nh tapeinofrosunh lowliness, humility, Ntest. from ta^peino/frwn
a. In Phil. 2:3 Paul requires tapefs from the community. Not “self-seeking” fea nor “vainglorious boasting” eda as self-glory should control their mutual relations but tapefs. The opposite gives this the sense of unselfishness. The two sentences which follow show that it is the resolution to subject oneself to others and to be more concerned about their welfare than one’s own, v. 4.65 The term humility thus catches up what Jesus said about greatness through service, II, 84, 1 ff. It is given its distinctive shape by Jesus’ own conduct, which in Phil. 2:5–11 is viewed from a standpoint which serves as the basis of Paul’s admonition, 2:1–4 18, 6 ff. By the Christ event the submission of man to God is made also the content of relations between men, since God Himself acts thus in Christ. Man now subordinates himself to others in service. This has nothing whatever to do with self-disparagement or servility.

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